The Second World War resulted in the deaths of around 85 million people. Additionally, tens of millions more people were displaced. However, amid all the carnage people demonstrated remarkable courage, fortitude, compassion, mercy and sacrifice. We would like to honour and celebrate all of those people. In the War Years Blog, we examine the extraordinary experiences of individual service personnel. We also review military history books, events, and museums. And we look at the history of unique World War Two artefacts, medals, and anything else of interest.
Diplomats & Admirals: The Origins of the Pacific War
In this military history book review, I examine 'Diplomats & Admirals' by Dale A. Jenkins - a fascinating look at how diplomatic failures led to Pearl Harbour and the Pacific War. Jenkins, a former US Navy officer, reveals how close Japan and America came to avoiding conflict in 1941. His analysis shows how personal ambition, institutional rigidity and communication failures among key figures on both sides derailed opportunities for peace. Despite having the world’s most powerful navy in 1941, Japan's leadership understood that a war with America would likely result in defeat.
Diplomats & Admirals by Dale A. Jenkins (Aubrey Publishing Co., New York, 2022) offers a fresh perspective on one of the most studied periods of World War Two, focusing particularly on the diplomatic manoeuvring that preceded the outbreak of war between Japan and the United States. Jenkins, a former U.S. Navy officer with extensive experience in the Pacific region and later careers in international banking and Council on Foreign Relations, brings both military and diplomatic insights to this compelling story.
The book’s greatest strength lies in its detailed examination of the diplomatic efforts to prevent war in the Pacific. Jenkins meticulously documents the complex web of personalities, policies, and missed opportunities that ultimately led to conflict. His portrayal of key figures such as Japan’s Prince Konoe, Foreign Minister Matsuoka, and US Secretary of State Cordell Hull reveals how personal ambition and rigid thinking often trumped rational diplomacy. Particularly telling is his description of Matsuoka, who “was interested, not in promoting the interests of Japan, but rather those of Matsuoka Yosuke,” and who was willing to “gamble the future of Japan and its seventy-seven million people” for his own political advancement.
Jenkins presents several fascinating “what-if” scenarios where war might have been avoided. One particularly striking example involves the Dutch East Indies oil negotiations, where Jenkins suggests that “willingness to allow a modest flow of oil could have precluded the Japanese invasions” and potentially removed the threat of Japanese economic collapse that drove them toward war.
The book’s treatment of the military aspects of the conflict, while competent, covers more familiar ground. However, Jenkins still manages to provide interesting insights, particularly in his analysis of the Japanese naval leadership’s persistent attachment to battleship warfare despite the rising dominance of aircraft carriers in naval engagements. This is notably illustrated in his discussion of Admiral Yamamoto’s planning for the Battle of Midway, where “despite his development of the carrier force, its unprecedented attack on Pearl Harbor (sic), and its victories in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean prior to Midway, Yamamoto compulsively remained a battleship admiral.”
One of the book’s most valuable contributions is its examination of the communication failures between different branches of government and military services. A prime example is Jenkins’ observation that Hull’s diplomatic stonewalling tactics stemmed partly from “the mistaken belief that in a war with Japan US forces would prevail in a few months,” noting that “taking five minutes to talk with Admiral Stark on the power of the Japanese navy never occurred to him.”
The narrative is strengthened by Jenkins’ ability to weave together the personal, political, and military aspects of the story. His background in both naval service and international affairs allows him to provide nuanced analysis of both the diplomatic scheming and military operations.
Today, it is easy to forget that back in 1941, Japan possessed the world’s most powerful navy and some of the most advanced aircraft. As Jenkins notes, the Japanese had developed “carrier operations and armaments that were, at that time, the most advanced in the world,” including the highly manoeuvrable Mitsubishi A6M Zero long range fighter. Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy was struggling with obsolete equipment - Jenkins points out that “in the early months of the war, the US Pacific Fleet was hampered by obsolete torpedo planes and hopelessly ineffective World War I torpedoes.” The fact that American naval forces managed to achieve victory at Midway despite these disadvantages makes their triumph even more remarkable and a testament to the courage of their pilots.
Diplomats & Admirals serves as both a fascinating historical account and a cautionary tale, demonstrating how personal ambition, institutional rigidity and failures of communication can lead nations into unnecessary conflict. Many readers, even those familiar with the Pacific War, might be surprised by Jenkins’ revelations about the missed opportunities for peace and the tragic consequences that followed. This well researched work is a valuable addition to the literature on the Second World War, offering insights into the complex, often murky diplomatic negotiations that preceded a conflict which would ultimately cost 25 million lives.
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Image Attribution:
Wikipedia.org: An Imperial Japanese Navy Mitsubishi A6M2 “Zero” fighter on the aircraft carrier Akagi during the Pearl Harbor attack mission. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:A6M2_on_carrier_Akagi_1941.jpeg
Wikipedia.org: Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1887–1955) brought Japanese Ambassador Kichisaburō Nomura (1877–1964, left) and Special Envoy Saburō Kurusu (1886–1954, right) to the White House for a meeting with President Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945) on 17 November 1941. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordell_Hull#/media/File:Hull,_Nomura_and_Kurusu_on_7_December_1941.jpg
Wikipedia.org: U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) Douglas TBD-1 Devastator aircraft are prepared for launching aboard the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) at about 0730-0740 hrs, 4 June 1942, Battle of Midway. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:Douglas_TBD-1_Devastators_of_VT-6_are_spotted_for_launch_aboard_USS_Enterprise_(CV-6)_on_4_June_1942_(80-G-41686).jpg
_on_4_June_1942_(80-G-41686).jpg){kind=link}
Learning Through Laughter: The Ingenious WWII German Tank Training Manuals
Have you ever wondered how young German panzer crews learned to handle their formidable machines during the Second World War? Here’s a surprise - the German Army created comic book-style manuals filled with cartoons, jokes, and even a board game. From these humorous wartime guides to today’s virtual reality training, discover how making learning fun revolutionised military education. In this article, we tell the fascinating story of the Panther-Fibel and Tiger-Fibel. We explore how making learning fun and memorable is an approach that works just as well today as it did back then.
In this article, we examine how the German Army tackled a unique World War Two challenge: rapidly training thousands of young recruits to operate highly complex Panther and Tiger tanks. Their solution was surprisingly modern – they created comic-style training manuals filled with humour, games, risqué artwork and memorable characters. This innovative approach to military education proved highly effective and foreshadowed today's gamification techniques in training and education.
In 2021, The Tank Museum launched a crowdfunding campaign. The campaign aimed to publish the first English-language translation of the Second World War German Army's Panther-Fibel. Curator David Willey explained, “The Panther-Fibel is a fascinating historical document. It was originally produced as an engaging and easy to understand handbook for the wartime Panther tank crews. The Panther was a highly sophisticated machine in every respect and required considerable knowledge to keep it serviceable and to get the best out of it.”
The Tank Museum needed to secure at least 200 pre-orders of the publication before 12 April 2021, to make a print run financially viable. The crowdfunding campaign succeeded in getting the first English-language edition of the Panther-Fibel printed.
Big Cats
During WWII, German panzer forces faced the daunting task of rapidly training thousands of new tank crews to operate some of the most sophisticated armoured fighting vehicles of the era. As the war progressed, the Allied nations opted for the mass production of medium tanks such as the American M4 Sherman and Soviet T-34. In contrast, the German panzer arm focused on increasing firepower and armoured protection. Between the summer of 1942 and 1943, the Germans introduced the formidable Tiger and Panther tanks. While extremely capable on the battlefield, these cutting-edge machines were also remarkably complex, requiring highly skilled crews to operate and maintain them effectively.
The Mighty Panther
First entering service in 1943, the Panther tank (Panzerkampfwagen V Panther) was a direct response to the shock of encountering advanced Soviet T-34 and KV-1 tanks on the Eastern Front. With its combination of thick, sloped armour, a powerful 75mm high-velocity gun, and wide tracks for excellent cross-country mobility, the Panther proved to be one of the most effective tanks of the war. However, it was also a complex, overly engineered machine, with numerous interleaved road wheels, an intimidating array of controls and equipment, and a temperamental transmission that demanded skilful handling. Rushed prematurely into service, the first production Panther tanks were plagued with mechanical problems. Nevertheless, overall, the Panther proved a successful medium battle tank. The British Army’s 4th Battalion, Coldstream Guards, for example, adopted a captured Panther, which they named 'Cuckoo'.[1]
The Birth of the Fibel Manuals
To help train the influx of new Panther and Tiger crews, Generaloberst Heinz Guderian, Inspector General of Panzer Troops, devised an unorthodox but highly effective approach. He tasked his subordinates with creating accessible, engaging crew manuals that would depart from the dry, highly technical publications of the past. The result was the “Tiger-Fibel” and “Panther-Fibel”. The two pocket-sized manuals featured cartoon illustrations throughout and used humour, rhymes, characters, and even risqué images to convey essential information in an engaging and memorable format.
Developed under the leadership of Lieutenant Josef von Glatter-Goetz, these “fibel” manuals covered everything from vehicle components and operating procedures to tactical advice, maintenance tips, and troubleshooting guides. The manuals use humour, storytelling and visual mnemonics to help make complex topics more understandable and easier to remember under the stress of combat. The manuals were written in rough, informal language. This reflected how soldiers spoke. It differed from the technical jargon commonly used in official publications. It is noteworthy that the manuals do not contain any Nazi iconography or propaganda commonly found during the period.[2]
One fascinating feature unique to the Panther-Fibel was the inclusion of a simple board game, resembling Snakes & Ladders, where players could review key learning points while navigating the hazards of operating their tank under combat conditions. By combining education with entertainment, the fibel manuals achieved remarkable results in preparing crews to handle their vehicles more effectively.[3]
Military and Government Informational Comics
During the war, the American military also effectively utilised comic books for training and morale purposes. The popularity of comic books among the civilian population, coupled with their ability to convey information in an engaging and entertaining manner, made them an ideal medium for military education and propaganda.
One of the most notable examples of this is the work of Will Eisner, a renowned cartoonist who was drafted into the U.S. Army. Eisner created a series of illustrations for army publications and maintenance manuals, featuring a character named “Joe Dope.” Through Joe Dope's humorous misadventures, soldiers were reminded of the importance of properly maintaining their equipment, thus promoting safety and efficiency within the ranks.[4]
The military also recognised the potential of comic books to boost morale among the troops. By reflecting the lives of American soldiers both on the battlefield and home front, these comics provided a sense of connection and familiarity amid the chaos of war. Furthermore, comic books were used to help explain U.S. foreign policy and justify specific actions and operations, helping to maintain support for the war effort among both soldiers and civilians.
The success of these military-themed comic books is evident in their sales figures. Between 1940 and 1945, comic book circulation doubled from 10 million to 20 million copies per month. In military post exchanges (PX), they outsold popular magazines like Life and Reader’s Digest. This demonstrates the effectiveness of comic books as a tool for military training, education, and boosting morale.[5]
During the Vietnam War, award-winning graphic artist Will Eisner teamed up with the U.S. Army again. This time Eisner was tasked to produce the M16A1 rifle manual in a comic book format, complete with a blonde bombshell narrator (a somewhat pejorative term for attractive blonde-haired women, usually media stars) and cheeky humour, to help GIs (infantrymen) absorb essential weapons handling information. A testament to the popularity of his work, Eisner’s M16A1 rifle manual remains in print and is available to purchase online.[6]
The Rise of Gamification in Military Training
In recent years, the concept of gamification has gained significant traction in various fields, including military training. Gamification refers to the application of game design elements, such as points, badges, leaderboards, and narrative, in non-game contexts to increase engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes. The term itself was coined in the early 2000s, but the idea of using game-like features to make serious activities more enjoyable and effective has a much longer history, as evidenced by the fibel manuals of World War II.[7]
Today, militaries around the world have embraced gamification and interactive multimedia as powerful tools for enhancing training. Virtual reality simulators, first-person shooter video games, and digital scenario trainers are used to immerse soldiers in realistic environments, helping them develop critical skills and decision-making abilities. Game-based learning has been shown to improve knowledge retention, problem solving, teamwork, and motivation.[8]
In January 2024, the British Army’s 1st (United Kingdom) Division announced that it was experimenting with augmented reality to enhance command-and-control capabilities. This initiative aims to make the division more agile, mobile, and resilient, preparing it for its new role as the land component of NATO’s Allied Reaction Force.[9]
The Royal Signals are using a virtual reality system called the Interim Combined Arms Virtual Simulation (Deployable) to enhance their battlefield skills. This system allows soldiers to practice driving, manoeuvring, and combat scenarios in a virtual environment, reducing costs and environmental impact compared to live training.[10]
Lessons for Business
The fibel story also offers valuable insights for enterprises seeking to improve their own training and employee development. By injecting humour, storytelling, and game-like elements into instructional content, companies can create more engaging and memorable learning experiences. Well-designed games can simulate real-world challenges, providing safe environments for employees to practise skills, experiment with strategies, and learn from mistakes.
SAP's Road Warrior, for example, was a gamified training tool designed to make learning and onboarding for salespeople more interactive and enjoyable. It uses videos and multiple-choice questions to simulate real-life sales meetings, rewarding users with points and badges, and fostering competition and social interaction among peers. Similarly, gamification in cybersecurity awareness training makes interactions more engaging, enjoyable, and secure. Serious games are gaining popularity because they promote natural learning.[11]
According to academic studies on the effectiveness of gamification, it does work and improves training outcomes. However, studies also highlight that the success of gamification often depends on the context and users.[12]
Key Principles
There are several key principles to keep in mind when integrating game-based learning into corporate training. The game objectives must be aligned with specific learning outcomes to ensure the activity supports the desired skills and knowledge. Leveraging the power of narrative can make the content more relatable and resonant for learners. Providing frequent feedback and rewards will help to motivate participants and reinforce their progress. Incorporating social elements fosters collaboration and friendly competition, reflecting the dynamics of real-world teamwork. Finally, the game should be accessible and easy to use for all skill levels to maximise engagement and effectiveness. It's interesting that the Panther-Fibel, with its stories, jokes, characters, and comical illustrations, fulfils all the necessary elements for successful game-based learning.
When these principles are applied, game-based learning becomes a powerful way to boost employee engagement, knowledge retention, and performance. Just like the young Panther crews found, the quickest way to learn new skills is often the most enjoyable. By embracing the power of play, modern organisations can help their teams tackle the challenges of today’s workplace with skill, confidence, and a touch of humour.
References:
David Willey, Panther-Fibel Introduction, Tank Museum, 2021.How the 'Tiger-fibel' and 'Panther-fibel' Came About, Military History Visualised, YouTube video, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT8ql7TMhmoPanther-Fibel, David Wiley, Tank Museum document, 2021.Todd Crumley, Don’t Be a Dope”: Will Eisner’s World War II Posters, NATIONAL ARCHIVES, 2022.Wikipedia.org, U.S. Government Informational Comics.Blake Stilwell, The Original M16 Manual Was a Vietnam War Comic Book, Military.com, September 30, 2021.Sebastian Deterding, Dan Dixon, Rilla Khaled, and Lennart Nacke, From Game Design Elements to Gamefulness: Defining 'Gamification', Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, 2011, pp. 9-15.Jo Brick, Gaming and Professional Military Education, The Forge, October 2020.Army.mod.uk, Land warriors in the world of augmented reality, January 2024.Army.mod.uk, Royal Signals use virtual reality system to hone battlefield skills, July 2023.Iqra Obaid, Shoaib Farooq and Adnan Abid, Gamification for Recruitment and Job Training: Model, Taxonomy, and Challenges, IEEE Access. PP. 1-1. 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2984178, 2020.J. Hamari, J. Koivisto and H. Sarsa, Does Gamification Work? -- A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification, 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Waikoloa, HI, USA, 2014, pp. 3025-3034, doi: 10.1109/HICSS.2014.377, 2014.
Death and Taxes: Financing Britain’s Wars
Ever wondered why we pay taxes the way we do? Our latest guest blog post uncovers the fascinating wartime origins of the UK tax system.
In this intriguing exploration of British fiscal history, Simon Thomas, Managing Director of Ridgefield Consulting, reveals some of the surprising and intricate relationships between warfare and taxation in the United Kingdom. From medieval scutage to the modern PAYE system, this article reveals how moments of national crisis fundamentally shaped the tax structures we know today. Thomas takes us on a journey through centuries of innovation in public finance, showing how creative solutions to wartime funding challenges evolved into the cornerstone principles of modern taxation. Whether you're a history enthusiast, a tax professional, or simply someone who is curious about how our current system came about, this article offers valuable insights into how national emergencies have consistently driven financial innovation in Britain.
You may wonder what war and taxes have in common. Unbeknownst to many, the two have strong links throughout UK history. Wars, often expensive and prolonged, have frequently driven the Government and historically the Crown to seek new ways to generate revenue through the rise of existing taxes and the introduction of new taxes. Over the centuries, the burden of financing these conflicts has shaped the UK’s modern-day taxation system.
Early Taxation and War
The roots and early intertwining of taxation and war begin in medieval times. In tumultuous Norman England, Henry I often gifted land to his knights or nobles under the ‘feudal system’. In return he expected them to offer their military service, and this was central to supporting and building his military.
If these landholders did not want to offer their service in exchange for the land, they could pay a tax called ‘scutage’ and the King would use this money to hire professional soldiers in their place. This practice became a vital source of funding in war and the Crusades and was adopted further by Henry II.
The Window Tax and Creative Revenue Measures
Over the centuries, financial pressures from ongoing wars pushed the government to come up with creative, controversial, and sometimes unusual, forms of taxation. One famous example was the window tax, introduced in 1696 under William III. This tax was designed as an indirect method to tax wealthier households without imposing a formal income tax. Homeowners were taxed based on the number of windows in their homes, as larger homes with more windows were often owned by the wealthier classes. However, to avoid the tax, many property owners began bricking up their windows, giving rise to the term “daylight robbery.”
Other unique taxes have followed in history, like the hearth tax, which charged per fireplace, and the hair powder tax, imposed on those who wore powdered wigs—a symbol of wealth at the time. These inventive taxes highlight how the government’s need for revenue during times of crisis arose. Many of these policies, despite their unusual nature, set the foundation for modern progressive taxes.
The Napoleonic Wars: Income and Inheritance Tax
The Napoleonic wars (1799-1815) marked a turning point in taxation and, to finance its immense costs, Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger introduced income tax in 1799. This was the first taxation of its kind on personal earnings and, even though it was originally meant as a temporary measure, set the stage for modern taxation.
The birth of inheritance tax was brought in initially known as ‘legacy duty’ under George III's reign, a tax was imposed on property passed through wills to raise revenue for the government. Legacy tax was levied on how close the relationship of those who inherited was to the deceased. This tax later evolved in the late 1800s as the wars needed more revenue and saw the introduction of succession duty which would tax the whole of the inherited state like today's form of inheritance tax.
The World Wars and Expansion of the Tax System
War is expensive for all; however, the government realized that some industries were profiting from ongoing troubles, for instance, arms manufacturers. During the First World War (1914-1918), because of this, they introduced an excess profits tax on profits that were above their normal pre-war level. This tax was levied at 50% on the profits that surpassed the normal level, with a £200 deduction per year for each business.
The Second World War (1939-1945) saw an expansion of these wartime taxes, with significant increases in income tax and other goods and services, to help raise the money needed to support the war effort. In 1938 they decided to increase income tax, the standard rate was increased to (27.5%) 5 shillings and 6 pence.
Additionally, a surtax, like today's additional tax bracket, was introduced: incomes over £50,000 were subject to a 41% surtax on top of the standard rate, meaning income below £50,000 was taxed at 27.5%, and any income above this threshold faced the higher surtax rate.
To streamline tax collection, the PAYE (Pay As You Earn) system was introduced in 1944 and now some 10 million people are paying direct taxation. This system allowed employers to deduct income tax directly from employees’ wages on a weekly or monthly basis, making tax collection more efficient and forming the basis of the modern income tax system.
Recovering from World War II, the government faced the financial challenge of rebuilding the country, leading to further increases in taxes, particularly inheritance tax. Rates soared from below 60% to as high as 80% by 1969, which is a stark contrast to today's rate of 40%.
In summary, the history of taxes has always been intertwined with wars in the UK and shows how taxation has often been a balancing act between government goals and public needs. These taxes, originally meant to be temporary, have become a lasting part of today’s system, reminding us of how times of crisis can shape what society expects from taxation.
About the Author
Simon Thomas, Managing Director of Ridgefield Consulting. Simon has a longstanding background in tax and accounting, starting with his father, Brian Thomas, who is a Chartered Accountant. Simon trained in London, at one of the Big4 – EY, where he gained expert knowledge and experience. Simon started Ridgefield Consulting in 2010. In April 2021, he expanded the business by acquiring a sister practice Kench & Co.
Sources:
J.R.T. Hughes, Financing the British War Effort, Cambridge University Press, 2011
Steven A. Bank & Kirk J. Stark, War & Taxes, Journal of Scholarly Perspectives, 2008
Strategic Insights from the Battle for Crete
Operation Mercury - the Battle for Crete in 1941 - was a ground-breaking airborne invasion. This historic event offers modern organisations valuable lessons in strategy, leadership, and adaptability. By examining the successes and failures of this battle, we can gain insights into effective decision-making and resilience in today’s competitive business world.
In May 1941, the idyllic Mediterranean island of Crete, a strategic location for controlling the region, became the stage for one of the Second World War’s most daring and innovative military operations. Operation Mercury, Nazi Germany's airborne invasion of Crete, marked a turning point in military tactics and offers valuable lessons for modern business leaders. This blog post explores why the German forces succeeded against British and Commonwealth defenders, and what today's organisations can learn from this historic battle.
The German Gambit for Crete: Innovation and Risk
The brainchild of Luftwaffe General Kurt Student, Operation Mercury represented a huge gamble by the German high command. Prior to this operation, no military force had ever tried to capture a whole island mainly through airborne assault. According to one of his closest aides, Student possessed the unusual ability to combine his inclination for the new, unconventional and adventurous with a working method based on meticulous staff work and precise attention to detail. As Mark Bathurst notes in his article for New Zealand Geographic, “Operation Mercury - the invasion of Crete by Nazi Germany - began on 20 May 1941, when gliders and paratroops (Fallschirmjäger) swooped through the dust and smoke thrown up by Luftwaffe bombs and cannon”. The Germans employed innovative tactics such as using silent gliders to land troops behind enemy lines, catching the defenders off guard.
This innovative approach surprised the Allied defenders, despite their superior numbers and defensive positions. The Germans’ willingness to embrace new tactics and technologies paid off, albeit at a high cost in casualties. Between 20 May and 1 June 1941, the Germans suffered 3,352 casualties. However, we must not forget the immense human cost paid by the Cretans during the Nazi occupation, resulting in the deaths of more than 3,400 individuals.
For business leaders, this underscores the potential rewards of innovation and calculated risk-taking. Companies that dare to challenge conventional wisdom and pioneer new approaches, such as adopting disruptive technologies or entering untapped markets, often gain a significant competitive advantage. However, it is crucial to balance innovation with proven methods and have contingency plans in place, as the high casualty rate among German paratroopers demonstrates.
Allied Failures: The Perils of Poor Communication and Complacency
Despite having advance knowledge of the German invasion plans through Ultra intercepts (signals intelligence), the Allies failed to mount an effective defence. This failure stemmed from several factors, including poor communication, complacency, and ineffective leadership.
As one historical account points out, “The Allied forces on Crete were a mix of British, Australian, New Zealand, and Greek troops, with unclear command structures and poor coordination”. This lack of clear leadership and communication channels severely hampered the defenders’ ability to respond effectively to the German assault.
Moreover, Allied commanders, including New Zealand’s General Bernard Freyberg, seemed overly concerned about a potential seaborne invasion, diverting crucial resources away from the defence of key airfields. This misallocation of forces proved disastrous when the Germans seized control of the Maleme airfield, allowing them to fly in reinforcements and ultimately secure victory.
For businesses, this serves as a stark reminder of the importance of clear communication, effective leadership, and the dangers of complacency. Even with superior resources or market intelligence, companies can fail if they do not have systems in place to act on information quickly and decisively. Leaders must ensure that all team members are aligned with strategic priorities and can adapt swiftly to changing circumstances.
The Power of Seizing Opportunities
Despite heavy initial losses, the German forces managed to capture the critical Maleme airfield, west of Chania. This success allowed them to fly in reinforcements and ultimately turn the tide of the battle. As Johann Stadler, a German veteran, recalled, “I was very proud. It was the first time in war history an island was conquered from the air”.
This aspect of the battle highlights the importance of rapidly capitalising on opportunities, even in the face of setbacks. In business, the ability to quickly identify and exploit key opportunities, such as emerging market gaps or shifting customer preferences, can make the difference between success and failure. Leaders must cultivate a culture of agility and empower their teams to seize chances when they arise.
Adapting to Changing Circumstances
The battle for Crete also demonstrates the critical importance of adaptability. The Germans had to adjust their plans on the fly when they encountered stronger-than-expected resistance. Conversely, the Allies’ rigid adherence to their initial defensive plans, despite changing circumstances, contributed to their defeat.
For business leaders, this underscores the need for agility and the ability to rapidly adjust strategies when market realities do not align with expectations. Successful companies are those that can pivot quickly in response to unexpected challenges or opportunities, such as technological disruptions or shifts in consumer behaviour. Building a flexible, responsive organisation is key to navigating today’s fast-paced business landscape.
The Cost of Victory: Long-term Strategic Implications
While Operation Mercury was ultimately successful, it came at a high cost. The heavy casualties suffered by the German paratroopers led Hitler to prohibit future large-scale airborne operations, effectively wasting this specialised resource.
This outcome offers a valuable lesson for businesses about the importance of considering long-term strategic implications when pursuing high-risk, high-reward strategies. Short-term successes that come at too high a cost can ultimately prove detrimental to long-term goals and capabilities. Leaders must carefully weigh the potential benefits of bold moves against their potential downsides and opportunity costs.
Learning from Failure and Setbacks
Although the Allies lost the Battle of Crete, they learned valuable lessons that they applied to later amphibious invasions, such as the landings in Sicily and Normandy. Their ability to adapt and improve their tactics based on the hard-won experience at Crete ultimately contributed to their success in the war. However, it can be argued that the Allies learned some of the wrong lessons from the German victory on Crete. As the war progressed, the Allies amassed considerable airborne forces, but their deployment was infrequent and not always successful. In 1944, Britain was chronically short of infantrymen while thousands of ‘special service’ troops like paratroopers were held in reserve for airborne operations that were frequently postponed or cancelled.
Similarly, businesses must learn to treat failures and setbacks as opportunities for growth and improvement. By conducting thorough post-mortems, identifying root causes, and implementing corrective actions, companies can emerge stronger and more resilient. Leaders who encourage a culture of continuous learning and improvement will have better preparation to face the inevitable challenges of the business world.
Applying Historical Lessons to Modern Business
The Battle for Crete offers a wealth of insights for today's business leaders:
Innovation and calculated risk-taking can provide a competitive edge but must be balanced with proven methods and contingency planning.
Clear communication, effective leadership, and avoiding complacency are crucial, even when you seem to have an advantage.
The ability to quickly seize opportunities and adapt to changing circumstances can be the difference between success and failure.
It is essential to consider the long-term strategic implications of high-risk actions, not just short-term gains.
Failures and setbacks should be treated as valuable learning opportunities for continuous improvement.
By studying historical events like Operation Mercury, business leaders can gain valuable insights on strategy, tactics, leadership, and communication. These lessons, drawn from one of military history’s most daring operations, remain remarkably relevant in today’s fast-paced, competitive business environment. As modern leaders navigate the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century, they would do well to remember the hard-fought lessons of Crete and apply them to their own strategic decisions.
References:
Bathurst, M. (2005). Operation Mercury: The Battle of Crete. New Zealand Geographic, Issue 073. https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/crete/
Bell, K. (2006). Battle of Crete: It Began with Germany’s Airborne Invasion—Operation Mercury. Historynet. https://www.historynet.com/battle-of-crete-it-began-with-germanys-airborne-invasion-operation-mercury/
MacDonald, C. (1995). The Lost Battle – Crete 1941.
Rehman, I. (2024). Britain’s Strange Defeat: The 1941 Fall of Crete and Its Lessons for Taiwan. War on the Rocks: https://warontherocks.com/2024/05/britains-strange-defeat-the-1941-fall-of-crete-and-its-lessons-for-taiwan/
The defence and loss of Crete, 1940-1941 (Part 1). (2020). The National Archives. https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/the-defence-and-loss-of-crete-1940-1941-part-1/
The defence and loss of Crete, 1940-1941 (Part 2). (2020). The National Archives. https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/the-defence-and-loss-of-crete-1940-1941-part-2/
From Battlefields to Boardrooms: How World War II Tactics Can Revolutionise Your Business Strategy
In our latest article, we delve into the contrasting tactics used by the British and German armies during WWII and extract practical advice for today’s business leaders. Discover how the British Army’s centralised command structure often led to slower response times and missed opportunities, and learn how you can avoid these pitfalls in your own organisation.
A Light Tank Mk.VIA of the 3rd King's Own Hussars. By British Army photographer. - This photograph ARMY TRAINING comes from the collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 4700-101), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2113928
In the high-stakes arena of modern business, leaders are constantly seeking innovative ways to stay ahead of the competition. Surprisingly, some of the most valuable lessons in organisational agility and decision-making can be drawn from an unexpected source: Second World War military tactics. In this article, we will briefly explore the contrasting tactics used by the British and German armies in WWII and provide some practical advice for today's business leaders.
The British Approach: Centralised Command and Its Pitfalls
During World War II, the British and German armies employed starkly different tactical approaches, which had significant impacts on their battlefield effectiveness. The British Army, particularly its infantry, often found itself at a disadvantage due to its rigid command structure. This system was characterised by centralised decision-making, strict adherence to hierarchy, and limited autonomy for lower-ranking officers and soldiers.
As a result, British units frequently had to await orders from higher up the chain of command before adapting to new situations. This led to slower response times, missed opportunities, and loss of initiative on the battlefield. The inflexibility of the British system often left them struggling to keep pace with rapidly changing circumstances.
The German Strategy: Auftragstaktik and Decentralised Decision-Making
In contrast, the German army embraced a philosophy known as “Auftragstaktik” or mission-type tactics. Decentralised decision-making and empowerment of junior officers and non-commissioned officers marked this approach. It allowed for greater flexibility to adapt to changing battlefield conditions.
The German approach fostered initiative and adaptability at all levels, enabling their forces to react quickly to evolving threats and exploit unexpected weaknesses. This agility gave them a significant advantage in maintaining a high level of operational tempo and seizing opportunities as they arose.
StuG´s of the SS-Kampfgruppe “Harzer” of the 9th SS-Panzer-Division “Hohenstaufen” during the battle of Arnhem, Operation Market Garden 1944.
In Aaron Bates’ book, The Last German Victory (2021) he highlights the stark contrast between German and British military tactics during the ill-fated Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The German army’s doctrine emphasised individual initiative and aggression, allowing their forces to quickly adapt and respond to unexpected situations. This approach, coupled with their reliance on self-contained infantry units with substantial organic firepower, provided a significant tactical advantage. In contrast, the British Army’s strategy was heavily dependent on indirect firepower (artillery) and rigid planning, which proved less effective in the fast-paced, airborne assault environment of Market Garden. Bates argues that these doctrinal differences were pivotal in shaping the battle’s outcome, displaying the Germans’ ability to leverage their strengths against the Allies’ more rigid and less adaptable tactics.
StuG´s of the SS-Kampfgruppe “Harzer” of the 9th SS-Panzer-Division “Hohenstaufen” with British prisoners during the battle of Arnhem, Operation Market Garden 1944.
Translating Military Tactics to Business Strategy
The historical example of these contrasting military tactics holds valuable lessons for today's business leaders. Companies that allow employees to make decisions within the framework of overall organisational goals are likely to be more agile and responsive to market changes. Encouraging initiative at all levels can lead to innovation and improved problem-solving.
A decentralised approach can significantly reduce the time it takes to react to new challenges or opportunities. In a fast-paced business environment, the ability to quickly adapt to changing circumstances is crucial for success. While maintaining strategic oversight is important, creating a culture of empowerment allows for better tactical execution.
Implementing Mission-Type Tactics in the Corporate World
Clear Communication of Goals
To apply these lessons in a business context, leaders should focus on clear communication of goals. It is essential that all employees understand the company’s overall mission and objectives. This shared understanding provides a framework within which individuals can make decisions confidently.
Trust and Empowerment
Trusting and empowering employees is crucial. Micromanaging employees can stifle creativity, erode trust, and lead to decreased productivity and job satisfaction, ultimately resulting in higher turnover rates and a toxic work environment. Give team members the authority to make decisions within their areas of responsibility. This trust fosters a sense of ownership and accountability, often leading to more innovative solutions and improved performance.
Encouraging Calculated Risk-Taking
Creating an environment where reasonable risks are accepted and learned from is also important. Encourage calculated risk-taking and view failures as learning opportunities rather than reasons for punishment. This approach can drive innovation and help the organisation stay ahead of competitors.
Lessons from British Army Evolution: Investing in Training and Equipment
The importance of comprehensive training and proper equipment is starkly illustrated by the British Army’s experience in World War II. In the early years of the war, British forces often found themselves at a disadvantage due to inadequate training and outdated equipment. This deficiency contributed to several setbacks and defeats, particularly in the North African campaign.
British infantry training on an assault course, 1941. Photograph from the archive of the Imperial War Museum (H 12699)
However, the British military, political and industrial leadership recognised these shortcomings and acted. From 1941 onwards, there was a concerted effort to improve both training regimens and equipment quality. This included more realistic combat training (battle school), better integration of arms, and the introduction of more effective weapons and vehicles. The results of these improvements became evident in later campaigns, with British forces showing increased effectiveness and adaptability on the battlefield.
This historical example offers valuable lessons for modern businesses. Like the British Army of the early 1940s, many organisations today may find themselves ill-equipped to face rapidly changing market conditions. The solution lies in a commitment to ongoing training and investment in the right tools.
In a business context, comprehensive training should focus on developing both hard and soft skills. This includes technical training specific to job roles, as well as leadership development, decision-making workshops, and scenario-based exercises that simulate real-world challenges. By exposing employees to a wide range of potential situations, companies can build a workforce that’s adaptable and confident in their ability to handle unexpected circumstances.
Equally important is equipping employees with the right tools for the job. Just as the British Army needed modern tanks and aircraft to compete effectively, today’s businesses need cutting-edge software applications and technology. From project management tools that facilitate collaboration to data analytics platforms that enable informed decision-making, the right software can significantly enhance an employee’s ability to work autonomously and effectively.
Moreover, investing in user-friendly and efficient systems reduces friction in daily operations, allowing employees to focus on higher-level tasks rather than getting bogged down by cumbersome processes. This not only improves productivity but also boosts morale as employees feel the company is invested in their success. Without a doubt, cutting corners on equipment can produce the opposite result, causing bottlenecks in the workflow, decreased productivity, more mistakes, and unhappy employees.
The combination of comprehensive training and the right equipment pays off in increased confidence and competence across the organisation. When team members feel well-equipped, both in terms of skills and tools, they are more likely to take initiative, make informed decisions, and contribute meaningfully to the company’s success. This empowerment aligns perfectly with the principles of mission-type tactics, fostering a workforce that can adapt quickly to changing circumstances and seize opportunities as they arise.
Furthermore, this investment sends a clear message that the organisation values its employees and is committed to their growth and success. This can lead to improved job satisfaction, higher retention rates, and a more positive company culture overall.
By learning from the British Army’s evolution during World War II, modern businesses can understand the critical importance of continually updating their training methods and tools. In doing so, they can transform their workforce from one that struggles with outdated practices to one that excels in the face of new challenges.
Promoting Open Communication
Promoting open communication is essential for a decentralised approach to work effectively. Encourage the free flow of information across all levels of the organisation. This transparency helps ensure that decisions are made with the best available information and that lessons learned are quickly disseminated.
The Power of Decentralisation in Modern Business
By adopting a more decentralised approach, like the German military’s mission-type tactics, businesses can foster innovation, improve response times, and better adapt to the fast-paced, ever-changing modern business environment. This does not mean abandoning strategic oversight, but rather creating a culture where employees at all levels feel empowered to act in the best interests of the company’s mission.
Lessons from the Past, Strategies for the Future
In the words of General George S. Patton, “Never tell people how to do things. Tell them what to do and they will surprise you with their ingenuity.” By embracing this philosophy, modern businesses can unlock their full potential and outmanoeuvre their competitors in the complex battlefield of the global marketplace.
The lessons from World War II tactics remind us that in both warfare and business, adaptability and empowerment at all levels can be the key to success. As we navigate the uncertainties of the modern business world, it is time to look to the past for inspiration on how to build more resilient, agile, and successful organisations for the future.
Contact us today to discover the ways military history can inform and benefit business strategy, tactics, leadership, communication, motivation, and training.
References:
Dupuy, T. N. (1977). A Genius for War: The German Army and General Staff, 1807-1945. Prentice Hall.
Bates, Aaron (2021). The Last German Victory, Operation Market Garden 1944. Pen & Sword Military.
Van Creveld, M. (1985). Command in War. Harvard University Press.
Note: This article is for educational purposes only. The author acknowledges that while historical examples can provide valuable insights, modern business practices should always be adapted to current ethical standards and legal requirements.
The Silent Disaster: How Communication Failures Helped Doom Operation Market Garden
As we commemorate Operation Market Garden this September, it's worth reflecting on one of the most ambitious - and ultimately ill-fated - military operations of World War II. Launched in September 1944, Operation Market Garden aimed to secure a series of nine bridges in the Netherlands, potentially paving the way for a swift advance into Germany. It was a massive undertaking, involving over 34,000 airborne troops and 50,000 ground forces. Yet, what began with high hopes ended in a costly failure, partly because of a communications breakdown.
Operation Market Garden: 17 to 25 September 1944
As we commemorate Operation Market Garden this September, it's worth reflecting on one of the most ambitious - and ultimately ill-fated - military operations of World War II. Launched in September 1944, Operation Market Garden aimed to secure a series of nine bridges in the Netherlands, potentially paving the way for a swift advance into Germany. It was a massive undertaking, involving over 34,000 airborne troops and 50,000 ground forces. Yet, what began with high hopes ended in a costly failure, partly because of a communications breakdown.
At the heart of Market Garden's communication crisis was the inadequacy of the radio equipment. The British Army's standard radio set, the Wireless Set No. 22, proved insufficient for the task at hand. These radios had a maximum range of around six miles under ideal conditions, yet the Corps Headquarters was positioned a distant 15 miles away. To compound matters, the terrain around Arnhem presented additional challenges that the planners had failed to fully account for. The Arnhem area was characterised by woodland and urban buildings. These physical obstacles severely interfered with radio transmissions, further diminishing the already limited range of the No.22 sets. As a result, what should have been a vital lifeline for the paratroopers of the 1st Airborne Division fighting desperately to hold the north side of the bridge at Arnhem became a silent witness to their isolation and eventual defeat.
Interestingly, a potential solution to these communication problems was literally at hand. The Netherlands boasted an extensive and sophisticated telephone network, largely intact despite years of German occupation. This network was remarkably resilient, comprising three interconnected systems: the national Ryks Telefoon system, the Gelderland Provincial Electricity Board's private network, and a clandestine network operated by Resistance technicians. Even when key exchanges were disrupted, the Dutch were still able to communicate using alternative routings.
Yet, astonishingly, Allied planners failed to fully leverage this resource. This oversight raises profound questions about the rigidity of military thinking. Why did the Allied command, known for its adaptability in other areas, fail to pivot to this seemingly obvious solution? The answer likely lies in a combination of factors: overconfidence in existing systems, security concerns, lack of familiarity with local infrastructure, the fast-paced nature of the operation, and a wariness of the Dutch Resistance.
British XXX Corps cross the road bridge at Nijmegen
The consequences of this failure were dire. While some units made limited use of the phone system, the 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem - where the need was most critical - did not. They made no attempt to convey their urgent need for supplies or relief via the phone system to the corps headquarters. Ironically, Dutch agents inside the 82nd Airborne's landing area used the phone system early on D+1 to inform the 82nd that “the Germans are winning over the British at Arnhem” - the first indication that the 1st Airborne was in serious trouble.
In the face of radio failures, the Allied forces resorted to various other communication methods, each with its own limitations. Carrier pigeons proved unreliable, with many birds failing to deliver messages. Traditional forms of communication like land lines, runners, and dispatch riders were vulnerable to enemy fire and the chaos of battle. The artillery net ended up being one of the more reliable communication methods, allowing for effective artillery support and occasional relay of messages to higher command.
The communication failures during Operation Market Garden offer valuable insights into military organisational thinking. They underscore the importance of flexibility, the need to understand and potentially leverage local infrastructure, the crucial role of contingency planning, and the necessity of fostering a culture that encourages quick problem-solving and innovative thinking at all levels of command.
It's worth noting the contrast between the German military's mission-type tactics (Auftragstaktik), which emphasized flexibility and initiative, and the British Army's reliance on detailed orders and strict adherence to commands. This difference in command styles meant that German forces could often exploit opportunities more rapidly, while British forces maintained tighter control but at the cost of agility.
As we reflect on the events of eighty years ago, it's clear that the lessons learned extend far beyond the realm of military strategy. In any high-stakes endeavour, the ability to communicate effectively - and to adapt when primary methods fail - can mean the difference between success and catastrophic failure. The underutilisation of the Dutch phone system stands as a poignant example of how overlooking available resources can have far-reaching consequences.
The story of Operation Market Garden serves as a stark reminder of the critical role that effective communication plays not just in military operations, but in any complex undertaking. It's a lesson that remains relevant today, in fields ranging from business to disaster response. As we face our own challenges in an increasingly connected world, let's not forget the silent disaster that unfolded in Holland eighty years ago - and the valuable lessons it still has to teach us.
References
1. Middlebrook, M. (1994). Arnhem 1944: The Airborne Battle. Westview Press.
2. Ryan, C. (1974). A Bridge Too Far. Simon & Schuster.
3. Kershaw, R. (1990). It Never Snows in September: The German View of Market-Garden and the Battle of Arnhem, September 1944. Ian Allan Publishing.
4. Buckley, J. (2013). Monty's Men: The British Army and the Liberation of Europe. Yale University Press.
5. Beevor, A. (2018). The Battle of Arnhem: The Deadliest Airborne Operation of World War II. Viking.
6. Powell, G. (1992). The Devil's Birthday: The Bridges to Arnhem 1944. Leo Cooper.
7. Badsey, S. (1993). Arnhem 1944: Operation Market Garden. Osprey Publishing.
8. Hastings, M. (2004). Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944-1945. Alfred A. Knopf.
9. Zaloga, S. J. (2014). Operation Market-Garden 1944 (1): The American Airborne Missions. Osprey Publishing.
10. Clark, L. (2008). Arnhem: Operation Market Garden, September 1944. Sutton Publishing.
11. MacDonald, C. B. (1963). The Siegfried Line Campaign. Center of Military History, United States Army.
12. Bennett, D. (2007). Airborne Communications in Market Garden, September 1944. Canadian Military History, 16(1), 41-42.
13. Greenacre, J. W. (2004). Assessing the Reasons for Failure: 1st British Airborne Division Signal Communications during Operation 'Market Garden'. Defence Studies, 4(3), 283-308. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1470243042000344777#d1e290